國際海洋資訊

1. 21st Century as the Century of the Oceans

Approximately 71% of the surface area of Earth is covered by oceans, providing food security for over 3 billion people and facilitating 80% of the global cargo transportation. In addition, about 98% of international internet traffic is transmitted through submarine cables, which underscores the criticality of the oceans.

Entering the 21st century, major coastal states have recognized and assessed the value of their marine industries, formulating corresponding policies for protection and development. The oceans are now viewed as key drivers for employment, innovation, and advantages in competition. Globally, the ocean economy grew from USD 1.3 trillion in 1995 to USD 2.6 trillion in 2020, accounting for approximately 3-4% of global GDP. During this period, its growth outpaced that of the global economy. More than 75% of growth on ocean economy was driven by countries in the Asia-Pacific region, with East Asia alone contributing 56% of global ocean economy growth (OECD, 2024). These developments have confirmed the assertion made in Agenda 21 adopted in the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in 1992, that the 21st century will be the "century of the oceans."

2. International Initiatives and the Promotion of the Blue Economy as Means to Achieve Sustainable Growth of Marine Industries

Throughout history, humanity's pursuit of economic growth has resulted in a series of challenges that have profound impacts on marine environments. These include the overexploitation of marine resources due to overfishing and the widespread occurrence of illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing, the carbon emissions generated by marine economic activities (which account for approximately 11% of global emissions), and the accumulation of waste and plastics leading to marine debris. Additionally, various forms of marine development have contributed to the destruction of marine environments and ecosystem degradation, as well as the compounded threats posed by global climate change, including sea-level rise, flooding, and coastal erosion. These have all further undermined the prospects for the sustainable development of the ocean economy and its societal well-being.

To promote the sustainable development and utilization of the oceans, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development in 2011 highlighted the blue economy as a potential pathway to enhance ocean sustainability. In 2014, it further introduced the Blue Economy Concept Paper, which in turn spurred proactive promotion and implementation of the blue economy in recent years by countries such as the United States, the European Union, and Australia, as well as international organizations including the United Nations, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and the World Bank. These endeavors aim to advance an ocean industry that promotes intergenerational equity and justice both domestically and internationally, fosters equitable prosperity among people of the present generation, and continuously advances human well-being. However, the economic activities as well as products or services of the ocean industry are mostly considered public goods or common-pool resources. Therefore, how to implement the blue economy in practice becomes a pivotal issue in determining whether the oceans can truly achieve sustainable development.

3. Society and Ecosystems as the Foundation of Sustainable Development

Approximately 75% of terrestrial environments and 66% of marine environments  worldwide have been altered by human activities (Díaz et al., 2019). Around 50% of salt marshes, 35% of mangroves, 29% of seagrasses, and 30% of coral reefs have degradedor disappeared (Steffen et al., 2018), leading to the gradual loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services, and further affecting the sustainable use and management of coastal community resource systems (Kozar et al., 2020). In addition, coastal zones are one of the critical ecosystem areas in the world, accounting for approximately 22% of global ecosystem services (ESs) (Costanza et al., 2014). Therefore, how to maintain regional ecosystems poses a significant challenge for humanity.

Since the release of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) in 2005, there has been increasing interest in exploring ways to sustainably utilize biodiversity (MA, 2005).  Ostrom (2009) suggested that human activities—whether through organizations or government policies—are directly or indirectly linked to ecosystems, and therefore proposed the concept of social-ecological systems (SESs). This concept seeks to link natural and social sciences to facilitate the sustainable development of both society and ecosystems.

In 2010, the Tenth Meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP10) to the Convention on Biological Diversity launched the International Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative (IPSI) as an important instrument for achieving the Aichi Biodiversity Targets and for realizing objectives related to biodiversity conservation, the preservation of local traditional knowledge, and community development. The Satoyama Initiative introduced the concept of socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS), which aims to enhance the adaptive capacities of communities. It also aims to promote the conservation and sustainable use of local production landscapes and seascapes, including agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and animal husbandry, thereby achieving the goals of local economic, social, and ecological sustainability. Moreover, efforts have been directed toward maintaining or restoring socio-ecological production landscapes (Li & Wang, 2015) by applying the three-fold approach, which highlights the integration of wisdom to conserve diverse ecosystem services and values, the combination of traditional knowledge with modern science, and the exploration of innovative forms of co-management systems.

4. Enhancing Productivity and Biodiversity through Satoumi Practices

Building on the development of Satoyama, the Japanese scholar Yanagi (1998) also introduced the concept of "Satoumi", defining it as "coastal areas where both productivity and biodiversity are enhanced through human intervention or the interaction between humans and nature." This concept emphasizes how humans and the ocean can coexist in a symbiotic relationship, fostering a balance between marine ecological-cultural landscapes and social-ecological systems, and ultimately advancing overall sustainability. However, beyond considering various ecosystem indicators to ensure marine species and habitats, it is also important to create labor landscapes that connect humans with the ocean (Yanagi, 2011).

Coastal communities are often located in environmentally sensitive areas and exert  profound influences on social, economic, cultural, and geographical dynamics. In the face of declining ecological conditions and weakening social capital, it is essential to build local residents' understanding of environmental and community operational mechanisms; strengthen coastal community culture and ecosystem services; develop environmental education and citizen science awareness and initiatives through Satoumi  practices; empower residents to enhance social capital and community capacity; foster employment and create job opportunities; and thereby promote the reorganization and adaptive capacity of social-ecological systems to enhance community resilience.

Past examples include the Mao'ao community in New Taipei City, the Dong'ao  community in Yilan, coastal areas in Taoyuan, and Taijiang National Park. These  communities have actively employed Satoumi practices to cultivate ecological and scientific knowledge among residents and the public, enabling them to understand and support marine management policies and environmental sustainability, while also strengthening the connections and interactions between human life and the marine environment.

5. Satoumi and the Blue Economy Both Focus on the Practical Implementation of Sustainable Development

5.1 Satoumi Resilience Assessment Workshop

In order to assess the capacity of landscapes and seascapes to absorb or recover from various disturbances and pressures—including impacts on ecosystem processes and socioeconomic activities—without causing long-term damage; to fully leverage available social, economic, and environmental resources through networks so that communities can adapt to and mitigate risks and threats; and to maintain the sound structure and ecosystem service functions of socio-ecological production landscapes and seascapes (SEPLS) (Ford et al., 2020), international organizations took coordinated action.

Specifically, the United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability (UNU-IAS), Bioversity International, the Institute for Global Environmental Strategies (IGES), and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) jointly released the "Indicators of Resilience in Socioecological Production Landscapes and Seascapes (SEPLS)" in 2014. This tool identified five key dimensions: (1) landscape/seascape diversity and ecosystem protection; (2) biodiversity; (3) knowledge and innovation; (4) governance and social equity; and (5) livelihoods and well-being, encompassing a total of 20 resilience indicators (Figure 1). These indicators serve as tools that enable local communities to engage in adaptive management of their landscapes and seascapes. Communities can hence strengthen their capacity to cope with social, economic, and environmental shocks, thereby improving their environmentaland economic conditions, enhancing the social and ecological resilience of their landscapes and seascapes, and ultimately achieving a society in harmony with nature (UNU-IAS et al., 2014).

In addition, Satoumi practices employ Resilience Assessment Workshops (RAWs) to help local communities fully understand the conditions and dynamics of their landscapes and seascapes. These workshops provide a framework for communities to discuss and analyze their current social-ecological situations, formulate strategies to strengthen resilience, enhance adaptive management capacity, and reinforce stakeholder communication. They invite representative landscapes, seascapes, local groups, and relevant stakeholders to participate together, jointly assisting communities in developing and evaluating SEPLS resilience indicators (Figure 2) .

Moreover, stakeholder platform meetings bring together community residents, key stakeholders, and government agencies to jointly assess and share perspectives on governance, including regulations, communication, and organizational mechanisms at both governmental and community levels. This practice also strengthens cooperation among participants and policymakers in shaping management plans (Sun et al., 2020; Dublin & Natori, 2020). Such processes help communities identify key factors influencing resilience, foster intergenerational learning, strengthen traditional ecological production, and integrate traditional knowledge into science and policy. By conducting systematic assessments and responses, they also encourage relevant government agencies to recognize the actions of management taken to rebuild and maintain resilience. Through collaboration among communities and stakeholders, institutional, cognitive, economic, social, cultural, and technological solutions can be advanced across ecosystems, thus balancing the development of social-ecological systems (Satoyama Initiative, 2024).

Figure 1. 20 Resilience Indicators of SEPLS

Photo credit: Yao-Jen Hsiao

Figure 2. Results of the SEPLS Resilience Assessment for Dong'ao Community, Yilan

Photo credit:Yao-Jen Hsiao

5.2 The RISC Assessment Framework for Blue Economy

To ensure the sustainable development of the blue economy, the OECD has developed an assessment framework for resilient, inclusive, sustainable, and circular (RISC) blue economies in cities and regions (or RISC-proof) (Figure 3). Between July 2022 and  September 2023, the OECD had collected assessment results from more than 80 cities, regions, basin organizations, and small island developing states (SIDS) (OECD, 2024).

The RISC assessment framework is not intended as a reporting tool, monitoring system, or set of standards. Rather, it fosters a comprehensive diagnosis of the blue economy through bottom-up communication among diverse stakeholders, facilitating consensus on the governance improvements needed for the future. It helps governments and blue economy stakeholders identify strengths, weaknesses, and opportunities for improvement, thereby guiding development strategies and supporting the blue economy with RISC resilience.

The RISC assessment consists of three parts. First, local governments evaluate the  resilience, inclusiveness, sustainability, and circularity of the blue economy within their city or region. The second part is for local governments to assess the level of enabling governance conditions within their cities or regions for implementing a RISC-certified blue economy. This part of the assessment includes nine key questions that cover policy formulation, policy coherence, and policy implementation. Local and regional governments incorporate water security into discussions on blue economy systems as a means to stimulate multi-stakeholder dialogue, build consensus, and encourage broad-based input. The results have indicated that to effectively implement blue economy requires comprehensive policies, ensured policy consistence, and enabling conditions for policy execution to achieve the sustainable development of ocean industries. Examples of the RISC assessment outcomes are shown in Figure 4.

Figure 3. RISC Assessment Framework

Photo credit:Yao-Jen Hsiao

Figure 4&5. Sample Results from the RISC Assessment

Photo credit:Yao-Jen Hsiao

6. Advancing a Sustainable Blue Economy through Satoumi Practices

In recent years, the global development of marine industries has impacted the ecosystem services, thereby undermining sustainable development. Satoumi, by focusing on the relationship between humans and nature, respects local knowledge and has trusts in humanity's capacity for wise use. It also considers the harmony between society and ecosystems, laying an essential foundation for realizing the blue economy and sustainable development. However, the marine economy has diversified. It has gone beyond traditional fisheries, shipping, and marine recreation. To include rapidly growing sectors such as renewable energy and biotechnology, there is now a need to establish clear metrics for ecosystem services as well as their spatial interactions and synergies (Rui et al., 2024).

On the other hand, the definitions used in international frameworks regarding the ocean economy often lack comprehensive information on or fail to consider the non-market products and services (OECD, 2016). Thus, ecosystem services should be incorporated when implementing a blue economy. For example, marine sectors should integrate biodiversity strategies and measure environmental depletion, degradation, as well as the non-market benefits provided by ecosystems in order to enhance resilience (Mulazzani & Malorgio, 2017). Meanwhile, climate change adaptation strategies should also be  included, with consideration for Nature-based Solutions (NbS), to advance carbon reduction and towards the net-zero goals.

Through Resilience Assessment Workshops (RAWs) and stakeholder platform meetings, Satoumi can promotes communication among diverse stakeholders in coastal communities, evaluates actions plans that enhance resilience, and increases adaptive capacity. This aligns with the objectives of the blue economy's RISC-proof approach. Therefore, through leveraging Satoumi to boost local's actions, it fosters peer learning and advances ocean governance from coastal communities to regional, even national levels. It can thereby contribute to the advancement of the blue economy.

Finally, beyond sustained attention and advocacy for the blue economy, national governments and the international community should also advance the formulation of legally binding policies for plastic management, so is it importance to expand collection on ocean-related data such as carbon emissions, trade, and investment. The global society should also eliminate harmful subsidies, improve management mechanisms for exclusive economic zones and the high seas, and promote investment in marine technology and digital transformation. Only through these efforts can the synergistic benefits of ocean governance be realized, ultimately achieving a sustainable blue economy.

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